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By the Hellenistic period, it began also to be associated with Greco-Roman mysteries, becoming synonymous with the Greek term musterion. The adjective is not used in the New Testament, but Clement of Alexandria[note 3] speaks of the \"learned\" (gnostikos) Christian in complimentary terms.[11] The use of gnostikos in relation to heresy originates with interpreters of Irenaeus. Some scholars[note 4] consider that Irenaeus sometimes uses gnostikos to simply mean \"intellectual\",[note 5] whereas his mention of \"the intellectual sect\"[note 6] is a specific designation.[13][note 7][note 8][note 9] The term \"Gnosticism\" does not appear in ancient sources,[15][note 10] and was first coined in the 17th century by Henry More in a commentary on the seven letters of the Book of Revelation, where More used the term \"Gnosticisme\" to describe the heresy in Thyatira.[16][note 11] The term Gnosticism was derived from the use of the Greek adjective gnostikos (Greek γνωστικός, \"learned\", \"intellectual\") by St. Irenaeus (c. 185 AD) to describe the school of Valentinus as he legomene gnostike haeresis \"the heresy called Learned (gnostic).\"[17][note 12]
Some scholars prefer to speak of \"gnosis\" when referring to first-century ideas that later developed into Gnosticism, and to reserve the term \"Gnosticism\" for the synthesis of these ideas into a coherent movement in the second century.[24] According to James M. Robinson, no gnostic texts clearly pre-date Christianity,[note 15] and \"pre-Christian Gnosticism as such is hardly attested in a way to settle the debate once and for all.\"[25]
Many of the Nag Hammadi texts make reference to Judaism, in some cases with a violent rejection of the Jewish God.[22][note 14] Gershom Scholem once described Gnosticism as \"the Greatest case of metaphysical anti-Semitism\".[30] Professor Steven Bayme said gnosticism would be better characterized as anti-Judaism.[31] Recent research into the origins of Gnosticism shows a strong Jewish influence, particularly from Hekhalot literature.[32]
Gnostic systems postulate a dualism between God and the world,[59] varying from the \"radical dualist\" systems of Manichaeism to the \"mitigated dualism\" of classic gnostic movements. Radical dualism, or absolute dualism, posits two co-equal divine forces, while in mitigated dualism one of the two principles is in some way inferior to the other. In qualified monism the second entity may be divine or semi-divine. Valentinian Gnosticism is a form of monism, expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner.[60]
Pleroma is also used in the general Greek language, and is used by the Greek Orthodox church in this general form, since the word appears in the Epistle to the Colossians. Proponents of the view that Paul was actually a gnostic, such as Elaine Pagels, view the reference in Colossians as a term that has to be interpreted in a gnostic sense.
In Gnostic tradition, the term Sophia (Σοφία, Greek for \"wisdom\") refers to the final and lowest emanation of God, and is identified with the anima mundi or world-soul. In most, if not all, versions of the gnostic myth, Sophia births the demiurge, who in turn brings about the creation of materiality. The positive or negative depiction of materiality thus resides a great deal on mythic depictions of Sophia's actions. She is occasionally referred to by the Hebrew equivalent of Achamoth (this is a feature of Ptolemy's version of the Valentinian gnostic myth). Jewish Gnosticism with a focus on Sophia was active by 90 AD.[citation needed]
According to Walter Bauer, \"heresies\" may well have been the original form of Christianity in many regions.[90] This theme was further developed by Elaine Pagels,[91] who argues that \"the proto-orthodox church found itself in debates with gnostic Christians that helped them to stabilize their own beliefs.\"[86] According to Gilles Quispel, Catholicism arose in response to Gnosticism, establishing safeguards in the form of the monarchic episcopate, the creed, and the canon of holy books.[92]
The prologue of the Gospel of John describes the incarnated Logos, the light that came to earth, in the person of Jesus.[95] The Apocryphon of John contains a scheme of three descendants from the heavenly realm, the third one being Jesus, just as in the Gospel of John. The similarities probably point to a relationship between gnostic ideas and the Johannine community.[95] According to Raymond Brown, the Gospel of John shows \"the development of certain gnostic ideas, especially Christ as heavenly revealer, the emphasis on light versus darkness, and anti-Jewish animus.\"[95] The Johannine material reveals debates about the redeemer myth.[82] The Johannine letters show that there were different interpretations of the gospel story, and the Johannine images may have contributed to second-century Gnostic ideas about Jesus as a redeemer who descended from heaven.[82] According to DeConick, the Gospel of John shows a \"transitional system from early Christianity to gnostic beliefs in a God who transcends our world.\"[95] According to DeConick, John may show a bifurcation of the idea of the Jewish God into Jesus' Father in Heaven and the Jews' father, \"the Father of the Devil\" (most translations say \"of [your] father the Devil\"), which may have developed into the gnostic idea of the Monad and the Demiurge.[95]
Tertullian calls Paul \"the apostle of the heretics\",[96] because Paul's writings were attractive to gnostics, and interpreted in a gnostic way, while Jewish Christians found him to stray from the Jewish roots of Christianity.[97] In I Corinthians Paul refers to some church members as \"having knowledge\" (Greek: τὸν ἔχοντα γνῶσιν, ton echonta gnosin).[98] James Dunn claims that in some cases, Paul affirmed views that were closer to gnosticism than to proto-orthodox Christianity.[99]
According to Clement of Alexandria, the disciples of Valentinus said that Valentinus was a student of a certain Theudas, who was a student of Paul,[99] and Elaine Pagels notes that Paul's epistles were interpreted by Valentinus in a gnostic way, and Paul could be considered a proto-gnostic as well as a proto-Catholic.[78] Many Nag Hammadi texts, including, for example, the Prayer of Paul and the Coptic Apocalypse of Paul, consider Paul to be \"the great apostle\".[99] The fact that he claimed to have received his gospel directly by revelation from God appealed to the gnostics, who claimed gnosis from the risen Christ.[100] The Naassenes, Cainites, and Valentinians referred to Paul's epistles.[101] Timothy Freke and Peter Gandy have expanded upon this idea of Paul as a gnostic teacher;[102] although their premise that Jesus was invented by early Christians based on an alleged Greco-Roman mystery cult has been dismissed by scholars.[103][note 22] However, his revelation was different from the gnostic revelations.[104]
Many of these movements used texts related to Christianity, with some identifying themselves as specifically Christian, though quite different from the Orthodox or Roman Catholic forms. Jesus and several of his apostles, such as Thomas the Apostle, claimed as the founder of the Thomasine form of Gnosticism, figure in many Gnostic texts. Mary Magdalene is respected as a Gnostic leader, and is considered superior to the twelve apostles by some gnostic texts, such as the Gospel of Mary. John the Evangelist is claimed as a Gnostic by some Gnostic interpreters,[135] as is even St. Paul.[78] Most of the literature from this category is known to us through the Nag Hammadi Library.
The followers of Valentinus attempted to systematically decode the Epistles, claiming that most Christians made the mistake of reading the Epistles literally rather than allegorically. Valentinians understood the conflict between Jews and Gentiles in Romans to be a coded reference to the differences between Psychics (people who are partly spiritual but have not yet achieved separation from carnality) and Pneumatics (totally spiritual people). The Valentinians argued that such codes were intrinsic in gnosticism, secrecy being important to ensuring proper progression to true inner understanding.[note 25]
Marcion was a Church leader from Sinope (present-day Turkey), who preached in Rome around 150 CE,[158] but was expelled and started his own congregation, which spread throughout the Mediterranean. He rejected the Old Testament, and followed a limited Christian canon, which included only a redacted version of Luke, and ten edited letters of Paul.[159] Some scholars do not consider him to be a gnostic,[160][note 27] but his teachings clearly resemble some Gnostic teachings.[158] He preached a radical difference between the God of the Old Testament, the Demiurge, the \"evil creator of the material universe\", and the highest God, the \"loving, spiritual God who is the father of Jesus\", who had sent Jesus to the earth to free mankind from the tyranny of the Jewish Law.[158][10] Like the Gnostics, Marcion argued that Jesus was essentially a divine spirit appearing to men in the shape of a human form, and not someone in a true physical body.[161] Marcion held that the heavenly Father (the father of Jesus Christ) was an utterly alien god; he had no part in making the world, nor any connection with it.[161]
Islam also integrated traces of an entity given authority over the lower world in some early writings: Iblis is regarded by some Sufis as the owner of this world, and humans must avoid the treasures of this world, since they would belong to him.[173] In the Isma'ili Shia work Umm al Kitab, Azazil's role resembles whose of the Gnostic demiurge.[174] Like the demiurge, he is endowed with the ability to create his own world and seeks to imprison humans in the material world, but here, his power is limited and depends on the higher God.[175] Such Gnostic anthropogenic[clarification needed] can be found frequently among Isma'ili traditions.[176] In fact, Ismailism has been often criticised as non-Islamic.[citation needed] Ghazali characterized them as a group who are outwardly Shias but were actually adherence of a dualistic and philosophical religion. Further traces of Gnostic ideas can be found in Sufi anthropogenic[clarification needed].[177] Like the gnostic conception of human beings imprisoned in matter, Sufi traditions acknowledge that the human soul is an accomplice of the material world and subject to bodily desires similar to the way archontic spheres envelop the pneuma.[178] The pneuma (spirit) must therefore gain victory over the lower and material-bound psyche (soul or anima), to overcome its animal nature. A human being captured by its animal desires, mistakenly claims autonomy and independence from the \"higher God\", thus resembling the lower deity in classical gnostic traditions. However, since the goal is not to abandon the created world, but just to free oneself from ones own lower desires, it can be disputed whether this can still be Gnostic, but rather a completion of the message of Muhammad.[171] It seems that Gnostic ideas were an influential part of early Islamic development but later lost its influence. However the Gnostic light metaphorics and the idea of unity of existence still prevailed in later Islamic thought.[169] 153554b96e
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